// Copyright (c) .NET Foundation. All rights reserved.
// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0. See License.txt in the project root for license information.

using System;
using System.Collections.Generic;
using System.Globalization;
using System.IO;
using System.Text;
using System.Threading.Tasks;
using Microsoft.AspNetCore.Http;
using Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc.Abstractions;
using Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc.ModelBinding;
using Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc.ModelBinding.Binders;
using Microsoft.AspNetCore.Testing;
using Microsoft.Extensions.Logging;
using Microsoft.Extensions.Primitives;
using Xunit;

namespace Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc.IntegrationTests
{
    // A clone of ComplexTypeIntegrationTestBase performed using record types
    public class ComplexRecordIntegrationTest
    {
        private const string AddressBodyContent = "{ \"street\" : \"" + AddressStreetContent + "\" }";
        private const string AddressStreetContent = "1 Microsoft Way";

        private static readonly byte[] ByteArrayContent = Encoding.BigEndianUnicode.GetBytes("abcd");
        private static readonly string ByteArrayEncoded = Convert.ToBase64String(ByteArrayContent);

        private record Order1(int ProductId, Person1 Customer);

        private record Person1(string Name, [FromBody] Address1 Address);

        private record Address1(string Street);

        [Fact]
        public async Task BindsNestedPOCO_WithBodyModelBinder_WithPrefix_Success()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Order1)
            };

            // Need to have a key here so that the ComplexObjectModelBinder will recurse to bind elements.
            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?parameter.Customer.Name=bill");
                SetJsonBodyContent(request, AddressBodyContent);
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Order1>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.NotNull(model.Customer);
            Assert.Equal("bill", model.Customer.Name);
            Assert.NotNull(model.Customer.Address);
            Assert.Equal(AddressStreetContent, model.Customer.Address.Street);

            Assert.Single(modelState);
            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "parameter.Customer.Name").Value;
            Assert.Equal("bill", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("bill", entry.RawValue);
        }

        [Fact]
        public async Task BindsNestedPOCO_WithBodyModelBinder_WithEmptyPrefix_Success()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Order1)
            };

            // Need to have a key here so that the ComplexObjectModelBinder will recurse to bind elements.
            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?Customer.Name=bill");
                SetJsonBodyContent(request, AddressBodyContent);
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Order1>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.NotNull(model.Customer);
            Assert.Equal("bill", model.Customer.Name);
            Assert.NotNull(model.Customer.Address);
            Assert.Equal(AddressStreetContent, model.Customer.Address.Street);

            Assert.Single(modelState);
            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "Customer.Name").Value;
            Assert.Equal("bill", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("bill", entry.RawValue);
        }

        [Fact]
        public async Task BindsNestedPOCO_WithBodyModelBinder_WithPrefix_NoBodyData()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Order1)
            };

            // Need to have a key here so that the ComplexObjectModelBinder will recurse to bind elements.
            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?parameter.Customer.Name=bill");
                request.ContentType = "application/json";
            });

            testContext.MvcOptions.AllowEmptyInputInBodyModelBinding = true;

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Order1>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.NotNull(model.Customer);
            Assert.Equal("bill", model.Customer.Name);
            Assert.Null(model.Customer.Address);

            Assert.Single(modelState);
            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "parameter.Customer.Name").Value;
            Assert.Equal("bill", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("bill", entry.RawValue);
        }

        [Fact]
        public async Task BindsNestedPOCO_WithBodyModelBinder_WithPrefix_NoBodyData_ValueInQuery()
        {
            // With record types, constructor parameters also appear as settable properties.
            // In this case, we will only attempt to bind the parameter and not the property.

            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Order1)
            };

            // Need to have a key here so that the ComplexObjectModelBinder will recurse to bind elements.
            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?parameter.Customer.Name=bill&paramater.Customer.Address=not-used");
                request.ContentType = "application/json";
            });

            testContext.MvcOptions.AllowEmptyInputInBodyModelBinding = true;

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Order1>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.NotNull(model.Customer);
            Assert.Equal("bill", model.Customer.Name);
            Assert.Null(model.Customer.Address);

            Assert.Single(modelState);
            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "parameter.Customer.Name").Value;
            Assert.Equal("bill", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("bill", entry.RawValue);
        }

        [Fact]
        public async Task BindsNestedPOCO_WithBodyModelBinder_WithPrefix_PartialData()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Order1)
            };

            // Need to have a key here so that the ComplexObjectModelBinder will recurse to bind elements.
            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?parameter.ProductId=10");
                SetJsonBodyContent(request, AddressBodyContent);
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Order1>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.NotNull(model.Customer);
            Assert.Equal("1 Microsoft Way", model.Customer.Address.Street);

            Assert.Equal(10, model.ProductId);

            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState).Value;
            Assert.Equal("10", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("10", entry.RawValue);
        }

        [Fact]
        public async Task BindsNestedPOCO_WithBodyModelBinder_WithPrefix_NoData()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Order1)
            };

            // Need to have a key here so that the ComplexObjectModelBinder will recurse to bind elements.
            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?");
                SetJsonBodyContent(request, AddressBodyContent);
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Order1>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.NotNull(model.Customer);
            Assert.Equal("1 Microsoft Way", model.Customer.Address.Street);

            Assert.Empty(modelState);
            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);
        }

        private record Order3(int ProductId, Person3 Customer);

        private record Person3(string Name, byte[] Token);

        [Fact]
        public async Task BindsNestedPOCO_WithByteArrayModelBinder_WithPrefix_Success()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Order3)
            };

            // Need to have a key here so that the ComplexObjectModelBinder will recurse to bind elements.
            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString =
                    new QueryString("?parameter.Customer.Name=bill&parameter.Customer.Token=" + ByteArrayEncoded);
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Order3>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.NotNull(model.Customer);
            Assert.Equal("bill", model.Customer.Name);
            Assert.Equal(ByteArrayContent, model.Customer.Token);

            Assert.Equal(2, modelState.Count);
            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "parameter.Customer.Name").Value;
            Assert.Equal("bill", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("bill", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "parameter.Customer.Token").Value;
            Assert.Equal(ByteArrayEncoded, entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal(ByteArrayEncoded, entry.RawValue);
        }

        [Fact]
        public async Task BindsNestedPOCO_WithByteArrayModelBinder_WithEmptyPrefix_Success()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Order3)
            };

            // Need to have a key here so that the ComplexObjectModelBinder will recurse to bind elements.
            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?Customer.Name=bill&Customer.Token=" + ByteArrayEncoded);
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Order3>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.NotNull(model.Customer);
            Assert.Equal("bill", model.Customer.Name);
            Assert.Equal(ByteArrayContent, model.Customer.Token);

            Assert.Equal(2, modelState.Count);
            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "Customer.Name").Value;
            Assert.Equal("bill", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("bill", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "Customer.Token").Value;
            Assert.Equal(ByteArrayEncoded, entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal(ByteArrayEncoded, entry.RawValue);
        }

        [Fact]
        public async Task BindsNestedPOCO_WithByteArrayModelBinder_WithPrefix_NoData()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Order3)
            };

            // Need to have a key here so that the ComplexObjectModelBinder will recurse to bind elements.
            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?parameter.Customer.Name=bill");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Order3>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.NotNull(model.Customer);
            Assert.Equal("bill", model.Customer.Name);
            Assert.Null(model.Customer.Token);

            Assert.Single(modelState);
            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "parameter.Customer.Name").Value;
            Assert.Equal("bill", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("bill", entry.RawValue);
        }

        private record Order4(int ProductId, Person4 Customer);

        private record Person4(string Name, IEnumerable<IFormFile> Documents);

        [Fact]
        public async Task BindsNestedPOCO_WithFormFileModelBinder_WithPrefix_Success()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Order4)
            };

            // Need to have a key here so that the ComplexObjectModelBinder will recurse to bind elements.
            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?parameter.Customer.Name=bill");
                SetFormFileBodyContent(request, "Hello, World!", "parameter.Customer.Documents");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Order4>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.NotNull(model.Customer);
            Assert.Equal("bill", model.Customer.Name);
            Assert.Single(model.Customer.Documents);

            Assert.Equal(2, modelState.Count);
            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "parameter.Customer.Name").Value;
            Assert.Equal("bill", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("bill", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "parameter.Customer.Documents").Value;
            Assert.Null(entry.AttemptedValue); // FormFile entries for body don't include original text.
            Assert.Null(entry.RawValue);
        }

        [Fact]
        public async Task BindsNestedPOCO_WithFormFileModelBinder_WithEmptyPrefix_Success()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Order4),
            };

            // Need to have a key here so that the ComplexObjectModelBinder will recurse to bind elements.
            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?Customer.Name=bill");
                SetFormFileBodyContent(request, "Hello, World!", "Customer.Documents");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Order4>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.NotNull(model.Customer);
            Assert.Equal("bill", model.Customer.Name);
            Assert.Single(model.Customer.Documents);

            Assert.Equal(2, modelState.Count);
            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "Customer.Name").Value;
            Assert.Equal("bill", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("bill", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "Customer.Documents").Value;
            Assert.Null(entry.AttemptedValue); // FormFile entries don't include the model.
            Assert.Null(entry.RawValue);
        }

        [Fact]
        public async Task BindsNestedPOCO_WithFormFileModelBinder_WithPrefix_NoBodyData()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Order4)
            };

            // Need to have a key here so that the ComplexObjectModelBinder will recurse to bind elements.
            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?parameter.Customer.Name=bill");

                // Deliberately leaving out any form data.
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Order4>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.NotNull(model.Customer);
            Assert.Equal("bill", model.Customer.Name);
            Assert.Null(model.Customer.Documents);

            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);

            var kvp = Assert.Single(modelState);
            Assert.Equal("parameter.Customer.Name", kvp.Key);
            var entry = kvp.Value;
            Assert.Equal("bill", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("bill", entry.RawValue);
        }

        [Fact]
        public async Task BindsNestedPOCO_WithFormFileModelBinder_WithPrefix_PartialData()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Order4)
            };

            // Need to have a key here so that the ComplexObjectModelBinder will recurse to bind elements.
            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?parameter.ProductId=10");
                SetFormFileBodyContent(request, "Hello, World!", "parameter.Customer.Documents");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Order4>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.NotNull(model.Customer);

            var document = Assert.Single(model.Customer.Documents);
            Assert.Equal("text.txt", document.FileName);
            using (var reader = new StreamReader(document.OpenReadStream()))
            {
                Assert.Equal("Hello, World!", await reader.ReadToEndAsync());
            }

            Assert.Equal(10, model.ProductId);

            Assert.Equal(2, modelState.Count);
            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);

            Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "parameter.Customer.Documents");
            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "parameter.ProductId").Value;
            Assert.Equal("10", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("10", entry.RawValue);
        }

        [Fact]
        public async Task BindsNestedPOCO_WithFormFileModelBinder_WithPrefix_NoData()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Order4)
            };

            // Need to have a key here so that the ComplexObjectModelBinder will recurse to bind elements.
            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?");
                SetFormFileBodyContent(request, "Hello, World!", "Customer.Documents");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Order4>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.NotNull(model.Customer);

            var document = Assert.Single(model.Customer.Documents);
            Assert.Equal("text.txt", document.FileName);
            using (var reader = new StreamReader(document.OpenReadStream()))
            {
                Assert.Equal("Hello, World!", await reader.ReadToEndAsync());
            }

            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState);
            Assert.Equal("Customer.Documents", entry.Key);
        }

        private record Order5(string Name, int[] ProductIds);

        [Fact]
        public async Task BindsArrayProperty_WithPrefix_Success()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Order5)
            };

            // Need to have a key here so that the ComplexObjectModelBinder will recurse to bind elements.
            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString =
                    new QueryString("?parameter.Name=bill&parameter.ProductIds[0]=10&parameter.ProductIds[1]=11");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Order5>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Equal("bill", model.Name);
            Assert.Equal(new int[] { 10, 11 }, model.ProductIds);

            Assert.Equal(3, modelState.Count);
            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "parameter.Name").Value;
            Assert.Equal("bill", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("bill", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "parameter.ProductIds[0]").Value;
            Assert.Equal("10", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("10", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "parameter.ProductIds[1]").Value;
            Assert.Equal("11", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("11", entry.RawValue);
        }

        [Fact]
        public async Task BindsArrayProperty_EmptyPrefix_Success()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Order5)
            };

            // Need to have a key here so that the ComplexObjectModelBinder will recurse to bind elements.
            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?Name=bill&ProductIds[0]=10&ProductIds[1]=11");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Order5>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Equal("bill", model.Name);
            Assert.Equal(new int[] { 10, 11 }, model.ProductIds);

            Assert.Equal(3, modelState.Count);
            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "Name").Value;
            Assert.Equal("bill", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("bill", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "ProductIds[0]").Value;
            Assert.Equal("10", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("10", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "ProductIds[1]").Value;
            Assert.Equal("11", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("11", entry.RawValue);
        }

        [Fact]
        public async Task BindsArrayProperty_NoCollectionData()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Order5)
            };

            // Need to have a key here so that the ComplexObjectModelBinder will recurse to bind elements.
            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?parameter.Name=bill");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Order5>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Equal("bill", model.Name);
            Assert.Null(model.ProductIds);

            Assert.Single(modelState);
            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "parameter.Name").Value;
            Assert.Equal("bill", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("bill", entry.RawValue);
        }

        [Fact]
        public async Task BindsArrayProperty_NoData()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Order5)
            };

            // Need to have a key here so that the ComplexObjectModelBinder will recurse to bind elements.
            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Order5>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Null(model.Name);
            Assert.Null(model.ProductIds);

            Assert.Empty(modelState);
            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);
        }

        private record Order6(string Name, List<int> ProductIds);

        [Fact]
        public async Task BindsListProperty_WithPrefix_Success()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Order6)
            };

            // Need to have a key here so that the ComplexObjectModelBinder will recurse to bind elements.
            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString =
                    new QueryString("?parameter.Name=bill&parameter.ProductIds[0]=10&parameter.ProductIds[1]=11");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Order6>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Equal("bill", model.Name);
            Assert.Equal(new List<int>() { 10, 11 }, model.ProductIds);

            Assert.Equal(3, modelState.Count);
            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "parameter.Name").Value;
            Assert.Equal("bill", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("bill", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "parameter.ProductIds[0]").Value;
            Assert.Equal("10", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("10", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "parameter.ProductIds[1]").Value;
            Assert.Equal("11", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("11", entry.RawValue);
        }

        [Fact]
        public async Task BindsListProperty_EmptyPrefix_Success()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Order6)
            };

            // Need to have a key here so that the ComplexObjectModelBinder will recurse to bind elements.
            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?Name=bill&ProductIds[0]=10&ProductIds[1]=11");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Order6>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Equal("bill", model.Name);
            Assert.Equal(new List<int>() { 10, 11 }, model.ProductIds);

            Assert.Equal(3, modelState.Count);
            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "Name").Value;
            Assert.Equal("bill", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("bill", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "ProductIds[0]").Value;
            Assert.Equal("10", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("10", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "ProductIds[1]").Value;
            Assert.Equal("11", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("11", entry.RawValue);
        }

        [Fact]
        public async Task BindsListProperty_NoCollectionData()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Order6)
            };

            // Need to have a key here so that the ComplexObjectModelBinder will recurse to bind elements.
            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?parameter.Name=bill");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Order6>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Equal("bill", model.Name);
            Assert.Null(model.ProductIds);

            Assert.Single(modelState);
            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "parameter.Name").Value;
            Assert.Equal("bill", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("bill", entry.RawValue);
        }

        [Fact]
        public async Task BindsListProperty_NoData()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Order6)
            };

            // Need to have a key here so that the ComplexObjectModelBinder will recurse to bind elements.
            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Order6>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Null(model.Name);
            Assert.Null(model.ProductIds);

            Assert.Empty(modelState);
            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);
        }

        private record Order7(string Name, Dictionary<string, int> ProductIds);

        [Fact]
        public async Task BindsDictionaryProperty_WithPrefix_Success()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Order7)
            };

            // Need to have a key here so that the ComplexObjectModelBinder will recurse to bind elements.
            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString =
                    new QueryString("?parameter.Name=bill&parameter.ProductIds[0].Key=key0&parameter.ProductIds[0].Value=10");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Order7>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Equal("bill", model.Name);
            Assert.Equal(new Dictionary<string, int>() { { "key0", 10 } }, model.ProductIds);

            Assert.Equal(3, modelState.Count);
            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "parameter.Name").Value;
            Assert.Equal("bill", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("bill", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "parameter.ProductIds[0].Key").Value;
            Assert.Equal("key0", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("key0", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "parameter.ProductIds[0].Value").Value;
            Assert.Equal("10", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("10", entry.RawValue);
        }

        [Fact]
        public async Task BindsDictionaryProperty_EmptyPrefix_Success()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Order7)
            };

            // Need to have a key here so that the ComplexObjectModelBinder will recurse to bind elements.
            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?Name=bill&ProductIds[0].Key=key0&ProductIds[0].Value=10");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Order7>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Equal("bill", model.Name);
            Assert.Equal(new Dictionary<string, int>() { { "key0", 10 } }, model.ProductIds);

            Assert.Equal(3, modelState.Count);
            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "Name").Value;
            Assert.Equal("bill", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("bill", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "ProductIds[0].Key").Value;
            Assert.Equal("key0", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("key0", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "ProductIds[0].Value").Value;
            Assert.Equal("10", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("10", entry.RawValue);
        }

        [Fact]
        public async Task BindsDictionaryProperty_NoCollectionData()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Order7)
            };

            // Need to have a key here so that the ComplexObjectModelBinder will recurse to bind elements.
            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?parameter.Name=bill");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Order7>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Equal("bill", model.Name);
            Assert.Null(model.ProductIds);

            Assert.Single(modelState);
            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "parameter.Name").Value;
            Assert.Equal("bill", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("bill", entry.RawValue);
        }

        [Fact]
        public async Task BindsDictionaryProperty_NoData()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Order7)
            };

            // Need to have a key here so that the ComplexObjectModelBinder will recurse to bind elements.
            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Order7>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Null(model.Name);
            Assert.Null(model.ProductIds);

            Assert.Empty(modelState);
            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);
        }

        // Dictionary property with an IEnumerable<> value type
        private record Car1(string Name, Dictionary<string, IEnumerable<SpecDoc>> Specs);

        // Dictionary property with an Array value type
        private record Car2(string Name, Dictionary<string, SpecDoc[]> Specs);

        private record Car3(string Name, IEnumerable<KeyValuePair<string, IEnumerable<SpecDoc>>> Specs);

        private record SpecDoc(string Name);

        [Fact]
        public async Task BindsDictionaryProperty_WithIEnumerableComplexTypeValue_Success()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "p",
                ParameterType = typeof(Car1)
            };

            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                var queryString = "?p.Name=Accord"
                        + "&p.Specs[0].Key=camera_specs"
                        + "&p.Specs[0].Value[0].Name=camera_spec1.txt"
                        + "&p.Specs[0].Value[1].Name=camera_spec2.txt"
                        + "&p.Specs[1].Key=tyre_specs"
                        + "&p.Specs[1].Value[0].Name=tyre_spec1.txt"
                        + "&p.Specs[1].Value[1].Name=tyre_spec2.txt";
                request.QueryString = new QueryString(queryString);
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Car1>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Equal("Accord", model.Name);

            Assert.Collection(
                model.Specs,
                (e) =>
                {
                    Assert.Equal("camera_specs", e.Key);
                    Assert.Collection(
                        e.Value,
                        (s) =>
                        {
                            Assert.Equal("camera_spec1.txt", s.Name);
                        },
                        (s) =>
                        {
                            Assert.Equal("camera_spec2.txt", s.Name);
                        });
                },
                (e) =>
                {
                    Assert.Equal("tyre_specs", e.Key);
                    Assert.Collection(
                        e.Value,
                        (s) =>
                        {
                            Assert.Equal("tyre_spec1.txt", s.Name);
                        },
                        (s) =>
                        {
                            Assert.Equal("tyre_spec2.txt", s.Name);
                        });
                });

            Assert.Equal(7, modelState.Count);
            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "p.Name").Value;
            Assert.Equal("Accord", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("Accord", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "p.Specs[0].Key").Value;
            Assert.Equal("camera_specs", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("camera_specs", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "p.Specs[0].Value[0].Name").Value;
            Assert.Equal("camera_spec1.txt", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("camera_spec1.txt", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "p.Specs[0].Value[1].Name").Value;
            Assert.Equal("camera_spec2.txt", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("camera_spec2.txt", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "p.Specs[1].Key").Value;
            Assert.Equal("tyre_specs", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("tyre_specs", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "p.Specs[1].Value[0].Name").Value;
            Assert.Equal("tyre_spec1.txt", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("tyre_spec1.txt", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "p.Specs[1].Value[1].Name").Value;
            Assert.Equal("tyre_spec2.txt", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("tyre_spec2.txt", entry.RawValue);
        }

        [Fact]
        public async Task BindsDictionaryProperty_WithArrayOfComplexTypeValue_Success()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "p",
                ParameterType = typeof(Car2)
            };

            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                var queryString = "?p.Name=Accord"
                        + "&p.Specs[0].Key=camera_specs"
                        + "&p.Specs[0].Value[0].Name=camera_spec1.txt"
                        + "&p.Specs[0].Value[1].Name=camera_spec2.txt"
                        + "&p.Specs[1].Key=tyre_specs"
                        + "&p.Specs[1].Value[0].Name=tyre_spec1.txt"
                        + "&p.Specs[1].Value[1].Name=tyre_spec2.txt";
                request.QueryString = new QueryString(queryString);
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Car2>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Equal("Accord", model.Name);

            Assert.Collection(
                model.Specs,
                (e) =>
                {
                    Assert.Equal("camera_specs", e.Key);
                    Assert.Collection(
                        e.Value,
                        (s) =>
                        {
                            Assert.Equal("camera_spec1.txt", s.Name);
                        },
                        (s) =>
                        {
                            Assert.Equal("camera_spec2.txt", s.Name);
                        });
                },
                (e) =>
                {
                    Assert.Equal("tyre_specs", e.Key);
                    Assert.Collection(
                        e.Value,
                        (s) =>
                        {
                            Assert.Equal("tyre_spec1.txt", s.Name);
                        },
                        (s) =>
                        {
                            Assert.Equal("tyre_spec2.txt", s.Name);
                        });
                });

            Assert.Equal(7, modelState.Count);
            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "p.Name").Value;
            Assert.Equal("Accord", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("Accord", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "p.Specs[0].Key").Value;
            Assert.Equal("camera_specs", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("camera_specs", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "p.Specs[0].Value[0].Name").Value;
            Assert.Equal("camera_spec1.txt", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("camera_spec1.txt", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "p.Specs[0].Value[1].Name").Value;
            Assert.Equal("camera_spec2.txt", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("camera_spec2.txt", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "p.Specs[1].Key").Value;
            Assert.Equal("tyre_specs", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("tyre_specs", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "p.Specs[1].Value[0].Name").Value;
            Assert.Equal("tyre_spec1.txt", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("tyre_spec1.txt", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "p.Specs[1].Value[1].Name").Value;
            Assert.Equal("tyre_spec2.txt", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("tyre_spec2.txt", entry.RawValue);
        }

        [Fact]
        public async Task BindsDictionaryProperty_WithIEnumerableOfKeyValuePair_Success()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "p",
                ParameterType = typeof(Car3)
            };

            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                var queryString = "?p.Name=Accord"
                        + "&p.Specs[0].Key=camera_specs"
                        + "&p.Specs[0].Value[0].Name=camera_spec1.txt"
                        + "&p.Specs[0].Value[1].Name=camera_spec2.txt"
                        + "&p.Specs[1].Key=tyre_specs"
                        + "&p.Specs[1].Value[0].Name=tyre_spec1.txt"
                        + "&p.Specs[1].Value[1].Name=tyre_spec2.txt";
                request.QueryString = new QueryString(queryString);
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Car3>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Equal("Accord", model.Name);

            Assert.Collection(
                model.Specs,
                (e) =>
                {
                    Assert.Equal("camera_specs", e.Key);
                    Assert.Collection(
                        e.Value,
                        (s) =>
                        {
                            Assert.Equal("camera_spec1.txt", s.Name);
                        },
                        (s) =>
                        {
                            Assert.Equal("camera_spec2.txt", s.Name);
                        });
                },
                (e) =>
                {
                    Assert.Equal("tyre_specs", e.Key);
                    Assert.Collection(
                        e.Value,
                        (s) =>
                        {
                            Assert.Equal("tyre_spec1.txt", s.Name);
                        },
                        (s) =>
                        {
                            Assert.Equal("tyre_spec2.txt", s.Name);
                        });
                });

            Assert.Equal(7, modelState.Count);
            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "p.Name").Value;
            Assert.Equal("Accord", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("Accord", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "p.Specs[0].Key").Value;
            Assert.Equal("camera_specs", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("camera_specs", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "p.Specs[0].Value[0].Name").Value;
            Assert.Equal("camera_spec1.txt", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("camera_spec1.txt", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "p.Specs[0].Value[1].Name").Value;
            Assert.Equal("camera_spec2.txt", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("camera_spec2.txt", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "p.Specs[1].Key").Value;
            Assert.Equal("tyre_specs", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("tyre_specs", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "p.Specs[1].Value[0].Name").Value;
            Assert.Equal("tyre_spec1.txt", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("tyre_spec1.txt", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "p.Specs[1].Value[1].Name").Value;
            Assert.Equal("tyre_spec2.txt", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("tyre_spec2.txt", entry.RawValue);
        }

        private record Order8(KeyValuePair<string, int> ProductId, string Name = default!);

        [Fact]
        public async Task BindsKeyValuePairProperty_WithPrefix_Success()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Order8)
            };

            // Need to have a key here so that the ComplexObjectModelBinder will recurse to bind elements.
            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString =
                    new QueryString("?parameter.Name=bill&parameter.ProductId.Key=key0&parameter.ProductId.Value=10");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Order8>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Equal("bill", model.Name);
            Assert.Equal(new KeyValuePair<string, int>("key0", 10), model.ProductId);

            Assert.Equal(3, modelState.Count);
            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "parameter.Name").Value;
            Assert.Equal("bill", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("bill", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "parameter.ProductId.Key").Value;
            Assert.Equal("key0", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("key0", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "parameter.ProductId.Value").Value;
            Assert.Equal("10", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("10", entry.RawValue);
        }

        [Fact]
        public async Task BindsKeyValuePairProperty_EmptyPrefix_Success()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Order8)
            };

            // Need to have a key here so that the ComplexObjectModelBinder will recurse to bind elements.
            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?Name=bill&ProductId.Key=key0&ProductId.Value=10");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Order8>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Equal("bill", model.Name);
            Assert.Equal(new KeyValuePair<string, int>("key0", 10), model.ProductId);

            Assert.Equal(3, modelState.Count);
            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "Name").Value;
            Assert.Equal("bill", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("bill", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "ProductId.Key").Value;
            Assert.Equal("key0", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("key0", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "ProductId.Value").Value;
            Assert.Equal("10", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("10", entry.RawValue);
        }

        private record Car4(string Name, KeyValuePair<string, Dictionary<string, string>> Specs);

        [Fact]
        public async Task Foo_BindsKeyValuePairProperty_WithPrefix_Success()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "p",
                ParameterType = typeof(Car4)
            };

            // Need to have a key here so that the ComplexObjectModelBinder will recurse to bind elements.
            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                var queryString = "?p.Name=Accord"
                                + "&p.Specs.Key=camera_specs"
                                + "&p.Specs.Value[0].Key=spec1"
                                + "&p.Specs.Value[0].Value=spec1.txt"
                                + "&p.Specs.Value[1].Key=spec2"
                                + "&p.Specs.Value[1].Value=spec2.txt";

                request.QueryString = new QueryString(queryString);
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Car4>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Equal("Accord", model.Name);

            Assert.Collection(
                model.Specs.Value,
                (e) =>
                {
                    Assert.Equal("spec1", e.Key);
                    Assert.Equal("spec1.txt", e.Value);
                },
                (e) =>
                {
                    Assert.Equal("spec2", e.Key);
                    Assert.Equal("spec2.txt", e.Value);
                });

            Assert.Equal(6, modelState.Count);
            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "p.Name").Value;
            Assert.Equal("Accord", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("Accord", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "p.Specs.Key").Value;
            Assert.Equal("camera_specs", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("camera_specs", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "p.Specs.Value[0].Key").Value;
            Assert.Equal("spec1", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("spec1", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "p.Specs.Value[0].Value").Value;
            Assert.Equal("spec1.txt", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("spec1.txt", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "p.Specs.Value[1].Key").Value;
            Assert.Equal("spec2", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("spec2", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "p.Specs.Value[1].Value").Value;
            Assert.Equal("spec2.txt", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("spec2.txt", entry.RawValue);
        }

        private record Order9(Person9 Customer);

        private record Person9([FromBody] Address1 Address);

        // If a nested POCO object has all properties bound from a greedy source, then it should be populated
        // if the top-level object is created.
        [Fact]
        public async Task BindsNestedPOCO_WithAllGreedyBoundProperties()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Order9)
            };

            // Need to have a key here so that the ComplexObjectModelBinder will recurse to bind elements.
            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?");
                SetJsonBodyContent(request, AddressBodyContent);
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Order9>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.NotNull(model.Customer);

            Assert.NotNull(model.Customer.Address);
            Assert.Equal(AddressStreetContent, model.Customer.Address.Street);

            Assert.Empty(modelState);
            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);
        }

        private record Order10([BindRequired] Person10 Customer);

        private record Person10(string Name);

        [Fact]
        public async Task WithRequiredComplexProperty_NoData_GetsErrors()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Order10)
            };

            // No Data
            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext();

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Order10>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Null(model.Customer);

            Assert.Single(modelState);
            Assert.Equal(1, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.False(modelState.IsValid);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "Customer").Value;
            Assert.Null(entry.RawValue);
            Assert.Null(entry.AttemptedValue);
            var error = Assert.Single(modelState["Customer"].Errors);
            Assert.Equal("A value for the 'Customer' parameter or property was not provided.", error.ErrorMessage);
        }

        [Fact]
        public async Task WithBindRequired_NoData_AndCustomizedMessage_AddsGivenMessage()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameterInfo = typeof(Order10).GetConstructor(new[] { typeof(Person10) }).GetParameters()[0];
            var metadataProvider = new TestModelMetadataProvider();
            metadataProvider
                .ForParameter(parameterInfo)
                .BindingDetails((Action<ModelBinding.Metadata.BindingMetadata>)(binding =>
                {
                    // A real details provider could customize message based on BindingMetadataProviderContext.
                    binding.ModelBindingMessageProvider.SetMissingBindRequiredValueAccessor(
                        name => $"Hurts when '{ name }' is not provided.");
                }));

            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Order10)
            };

            // No Data
            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(metadataProvider: metadataProvider);

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Order10>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Null(model.Customer);

            Assert.Single(modelState);
            Assert.Equal(1, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.False(modelState.IsValid);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "Customer").Value;
            Assert.Null(entry.RawValue);
            Assert.Null(entry.AttemptedValue);
            var error = Assert.Single(modelState["Customer"].Errors);
            Assert.Equal("Hurts when 'Customer' is not provided.", error.ErrorMessage);
        }

        private record Order11(Person11 Customer);

        private record Person11(int Id, [BindRequired] string Name);

        [Fact]
        public async Task WithNestedRequiredProperty_WithPartialData_GetsErrors()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Order11)
            };

            // No Data
            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?parameter.Customer.Id=123");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Order11>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.NotNull(model.Customer);
            Assert.Equal(123, model.Customer.Id);
            Assert.Null(model.Customer.Name);

            Assert.Equal(2, modelState.Count);
            Assert.Equal(1, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.False(modelState.IsValid);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "parameter.Customer.Id").Value;
            Assert.Equal("123", entry.RawValue);
            Assert.Equal("123", entry.AttemptedValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "parameter.Customer.Name").Value;
            Assert.Null(entry.RawValue);
            Assert.Null(entry.AttemptedValue);
            var error = Assert.Single(modelState["parameter.Customer.Name"].Errors);
            Assert.Equal("A value for the 'Name' parameter or property was not provided.", error.ErrorMessage);
        }

        [Fact]
        public async Task WithNestedRequiredProperty_WithData_EmptyPrefix_GetsErrors()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Order11)
            };

            // No Data
            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?Customer.Id=123");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Order11>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.NotNull(model.Customer);
            Assert.Equal(123, model.Customer.Id);
            Assert.Null(model.Customer.Name);

            Assert.Equal(2, modelState.Count);
            Assert.Equal(1, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.False(modelState.IsValid);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "Customer.Id").Value;
            Assert.Equal("123", entry.RawValue);
            Assert.Equal("123", entry.AttemptedValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "Customer.Name").Value;
            Assert.Null(entry.RawValue);
            Assert.Null(entry.AttemptedValue);
            var error = Assert.Single(modelState["Customer.Name"].Errors);
            Assert.Equal("A value for the 'Name' parameter or property was not provided.", error.ErrorMessage);
        }

        [Fact]
        public async Task WithNestedRequiredProperty_WithData_CustomPrefix_GetsErrors()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Order11),
                BindingInfo = new BindingInfo()
                {
                    BinderModelName = "customParameter"
                }
            };

            // No Data
            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?customParameter.Customer.Id=123");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Order11>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.NotNull(model.Customer);
            Assert.Equal(123, model.Customer.Id);
            Assert.Null(model.Customer.Name);

            Assert.Equal(2, modelState.Count);
            Assert.Equal(1, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.False(modelState.IsValid);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "customParameter.Customer.Id").Value;
            Assert.Equal("123", entry.RawValue);
            Assert.Equal("123", entry.AttemptedValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "customParameter.Customer.Name").Value;
            Assert.Null(entry.RawValue);
            Assert.Null(entry.AttemptedValue);
            var error = Assert.Single(modelState["customParameter.Customer.Name"].Errors);
            Assert.Equal("A value for the 'Name' parameter or property was not provided.", error.ErrorMessage);
        }

        private record Order12([BindRequired] string ProductName);

        [Fact]
        public async Task WithRequiredProperty_NoData_GetsErrors()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Order12)
            };

            // No Data
            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Order12>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Null(model.ProductName);

            Assert.Single(modelState);
            Assert.Equal(1, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.False(modelState.IsValid);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "ProductName").Value;
            Assert.Null(entry.RawValue);
            Assert.Null(entry.AttemptedValue);
            var error = Assert.Single(modelState["ProductName"].Errors);
            Assert.Equal("A value for the 'ProductName' parameter or property was not provided.", error.ErrorMessage);
        }

        [Fact]
        public async Task WithRequiredProperty_NoData_CustomPrefix_GetsErrors()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Order12),
                BindingInfo = new BindingInfo()
                {
                    BinderModelName = "customParameter"
                }
            };

            // No Data
            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Order12>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Null(model.ProductName);

            Assert.Single(modelState);
            Assert.Equal(1, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.False(modelState.IsValid);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "customParameter.ProductName").Value;
            Assert.Null(entry.RawValue);
            Assert.Null(entry.AttemptedValue);
            var error = Assert.Single(modelState["customParameter.ProductName"].Errors);
            Assert.Equal("A value for the 'ProductName' parameter or property was not provided.", error.ErrorMessage);
        }

        [Fact]
        public async Task WithRequiredProperty_WithData_EmptyPrefix_GetsBound()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Order12),
            };

            // No Data
            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?ProductName=abc");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Order12>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Equal("abc", model.ProductName);

            Assert.Single(modelState);
            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "ProductName").Value;
            Assert.Equal("abc", entry.RawValue);
            Assert.Equal("abc", entry.AttemptedValue);
        }

        private record Order13([BindRequired] List<int> OrderIds);

        [Fact]
        public async Task WithRequiredCollectionProperty_NoData_GetsErrors()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Order13)
            };

            // No Data
            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Order13>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Null(model.OrderIds);

            Assert.Single(modelState);
            Assert.Equal(1, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.False(modelState.IsValid);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "OrderIds").Value;
            Assert.Null(entry.RawValue);
            Assert.Null(entry.AttemptedValue);
            var error = Assert.Single(modelState["OrderIds"].Errors);
            Assert.Equal("A value for the 'OrderIds' parameter or property was not provided.", error.ErrorMessage);
        }

        [Fact]
        public async Task WithRequiredCollectionProperty_NoData_CustomPrefix_GetsErrors()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Order13),
                BindingInfo = new BindingInfo()
                {
                    BinderModelName = "customParameter"
                }
            };

            // No Data
            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Order13>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Null(model.OrderIds);

            Assert.Single(modelState);
            Assert.Equal(1, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.False(modelState.IsValid);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "customParameter.OrderIds").Value;
            Assert.Null(entry.RawValue);
            Assert.Null(entry.AttemptedValue);
            var error = Assert.Single(modelState["customParameter.OrderIds"].Errors);
            Assert.Equal("A value for the 'OrderIds' parameter or property was not provided.", error.ErrorMessage);
        }

        [Fact]
        public async Task WithRequiredCollectionProperty_WithData_EmptyPrefix_GetsBound()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Order13),
            };

            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?OrderIds[0]=123");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Order13>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Equal(new[] { 123 }, model.OrderIds.ToArray());

            Assert.Single(modelState);
            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "OrderIds[0]").Value;
            Assert.Equal("123", entry.RawValue);
            Assert.Equal("123", entry.AttemptedValue);
        }

        private record Order14(int ProductId);

        // This covers the case where a key is present, but has an empty value. The type converter
        // will report an error.
        [Fact]
        public async Task BindsPOCO_TypeConvertedPropertyNonConvertibleValue_GetsError()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Order14)
            };

            // Need to have a key here so that the ComplexObjectModelBinder will recurse to bind elements.
            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?parameter.ProductId=");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Order14>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.NotNull(model);
            Assert.Equal(0, model.ProductId);

            Assert.Single(modelState);
            Assert.Equal(1, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.False(modelState.IsValid);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "parameter.ProductId").Value;
            Assert.Equal(string.Empty, entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal(string.Empty, entry.RawValue);

            var error = Assert.Single(entry.Errors);
            Assert.Equal("The value '' is invalid.", error.ErrorMessage);
            Assert.Null(error.Exception);
        }

        // This covers the case where a key is present, but has no value. The model binder will
        // report and error because it's a value type (non-nullable).
        [Fact]
        [ReplaceCulture]
        public async Task BindsPOCO_TypeConvertedPropertyWithEmptyValue_Error()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Order14)
            };

            // Need to have a key here so that the ComplexObjectModelBinder will recurse to bind elements.
            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?parameter.ProductId");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Order14>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.NotNull(model);
            Assert.Equal(0, model.ProductId);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState);
            Assert.Equal("parameter.ProductId", entry.Key);
            Assert.Equal(string.Empty, entry.Value.AttemptedValue);

            var error = Assert.Single(entry.Value.Errors);
            Assert.Equal("The value '' is invalid.", error.ErrorMessage, StringComparer.Ordinal);
            Assert.Null(error.Exception);

            Assert.Equal(1, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.False(modelState.IsValid);
        }

        private record Person12(Address12 Address);

        [ModelBinder(Name = "HomeAddress")]
        private record Address12(string Street);

        // Make sure the metadata is honored when a [ModelBinder] attribute is associated with a class somewhere in the
        // type hierarchy of an action parameter. This should behave identically to such an attribute on a property in
        // the type hierarchy.
        [Theory]
        [MemberData(
            nameof(BinderTypeBasedModelBinderIntegrationTest.NullAndEmptyBindingInfo),
            MemberType = typeof(BinderTypeBasedModelBinderIntegrationTest))]
        public async Task ModelNameOnPropertyType_WithData_Succeeds(BindingInfo bindingInfo)
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor
            {
                Name = "parameter-name",
                BindingInfo = bindingInfo,
                ParameterType = typeof(Person12),
            };

            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(
                request => request.QueryString = new QueryString("?HomeAddress.Street=someStreet"));

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);
            var person = Assert.IsType<Person12>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.NotNull(person.Address);
            Assert.Equal("someStreet", person.Address.Street, StringComparer.Ordinal);

            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);
            var kvp = Assert.Single(modelState);
            Assert.Equal("HomeAddress.Street", kvp.Key);
            var entry = kvp.Value;
            Assert.NotNull(entry);
            Assert.Empty(entry.Errors);
            Assert.Equal(ModelValidationState.Valid, entry.ValidationState);
        }

        // Make sure the metadata is honored when a [ModelBinder] attribute is associated with an action parameter's
        // type. This should behave identically to such an attribute on an action parameter.
        [Theory]
        [MemberData(
            nameof(BinderTypeBasedModelBinderIntegrationTest.NullAndEmptyBindingInfo),
            MemberType = typeof(BinderTypeBasedModelBinderIntegrationTest))]
        public async Task ModelNameOnParameterType_WithData_Succeeds(BindingInfo bindingInfo)
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor
            {
                Name = "parameter-name",
                BindingInfo = bindingInfo,
                ParameterType = typeof(Address12),
            };

            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(
                request => request.QueryString = new QueryString("?HomeAddress.Street=someStreet"));

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);
            var address = Assert.IsType<Address12>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Equal("someStreet", address.Street, StringComparer.Ordinal);

            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);
            var kvp = Assert.Single(modelState);
            Assert.Equal("HomeAddress.Street", kvp.Key);
            var entry = kvp.Value;
            Assert.NotNull(entry);
            Assert.Empty(entry.Errors);
            Assert.Equal(ModelValidationState.Valid, entry.ValidationState);
        }

        private record Person13(Address13 Address);

        [Bind("Street")]
        private record Address13(int Number, string Street, string City, string State);

        // Make sure the metadata is honored when a [Bind] attribute is associated with a class somewhere in the type
        // hierarchy of an action parameter. This should behave identically to such an attribute on a property in the
        // type hierarchy. (Test is similar to ModelNameOnPropertyType_WithData_Succeeds() but covers implementing
        // IPropertyFilterProvider, not IModelNameProvider.)
        [Theory]
        [MemberData(
            nameof(BinderTypeBasedModelBinderIntegrationTest.NullAndEmptyBindingInfo),
            MemberType = typeof(BinderTypeBasedModelBinderIntegrationTest))]
        public async Task BindAttributeOnPropertyType_WithData_Succeeds(BindingInfo bindingInfo)
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor
            {
                Name = "parameter-name",
                BindingInfo = bindingInfo,
                ParameterType = typeof(Person13),
            };

            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(
                request => request.QueryString = new QueryString(
                    "?Address.Number=23&Address.Street=someStreet&Address.City=Redmond&Address.State=WA"));

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);
            var person = Assert.IsType<Person13>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.NotNull(person.Address);
            Assert.Null(person.Address.City);
            Assert.Equal(0, person.Address.Number);
            Assert.Null(person.Address.State);
            Assert.Equal("someStreet", person.Address.Street, StringComparer.Ordinal);

            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);
            var kvp = Assert.Single(modelState);
            Assert.Equal("Address.Street", kvp.Key);
            var entry = kvp.Value;
            Assert.NotNull(entry);
            Assert.Empty(entry.Errors);
            Assert.Equal(ModelValidationState.Valid, entry.ValidationState);
        }

        // Make sure the metadata is honored when a [Bind] attribute is associated with an action parameter's type.
        // This should behave identically to such an attribute on an action parameter. (Test is similar
        // to ModelNameOnParameterType_WithData_Succeeds() but covers implementing IPropertyFilterProvider, not
        // IModelNameProvider.)
        [Theory]
        [MemberData(
            nameof(BinderTypeBasedModelBinderIntegrationTest.NullAndEmptyBindingInfo),
            MemberType = typeof(BinderTypeBasedModelBinderIntegrationTest))]
        public async Task BindAttributeOnParameterType_WithData_Succeeds(BindingInfo bindingInfo)
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor
            {
                Name = "parameter-name",
                BindingInfo = bindingInfo,
                ParameterType = typeof(Address13),
            };

            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(
                request => request.QueryString = new QueryString("?Number=23&Street=someStreet&City=Redmond&State=WA"));

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);
            var address = Assert.IsType<Address13>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Null(address.City);
            Assert.Equal(0, address.Number);
            Assert.Null(address.State);
            Assert.Equal("someStreet", address.Street, StringComparer.Ordinal);

            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);
            var kvp = Assert.Single(modelState);
            Assert.Equal("Street", kvp.Key);
            var entry = kvp.Value;
            Assert.NotNull(entry);
            Assert.Empty(entry.Errors);
            Assert.Equal(ModelValidationState.Valid, entry.ValidationState);
        }

        private record Product(int ProductId)
        {
            public string Name { get; }

            public IList<string> Aliases { get; }
        }

        [Theory]
        [InlineData("?parameter.ProductId=10")]
        [InlineData("?parameter.ProductId=10&parameter.Name=Camera")]
        [InlineData("?parameter.ProductId=10&parameter.Name=Camera&parameter.Aliases[0]=Camera1")]
        public async Task BindsSettableProperties(string queryString)
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Product)
            };

            // Need to have a key here so that the ComplexTypeModelBinder will recurse to bind elements.
            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString(queryString);
                SetJsonBodyContent(request, AddressBodyContent);
            });

            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Product>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.NotNull(model);
            Assert.Equal(10, model.ProductId);
            Assert.Null(model.Name);
            Assert.Null(model.Aliases);
        }

        private record Photo(string Id, KeyValuePair<string, LocationInfo> Info);

        private record LocationInfo([FromHeader] string GpsCoordinates, int Zipcode);

        [Fact]
        public async Task BindsKeyValuePairProperty_HavingFromHeaderProperty_Success()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Photo)
            };

            // Need to have a key here so that the ComplexObjectModelBinder will recurse to bind elements.
            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.Headers.Add("GpsCoordinates", "10,20");
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?Id=1&Info.Key=location1&Info.Value.Zipcode=98052");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            // Model
            var model = Assert.IsType<Photo>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Equal("1", model.Id);
            Assert.Equal("location1", model.Info.Key);
            Assert.NotNull(model.Info.Value);
            Assert.Equal("10,20", model.Info.Value.GpsCoordinates);
            Assert.Equal(98052, model.Info.Value.Zipcode);

            // ModelState
            Assert.Equal(4, modelState.Count);
            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "Id").Value;
            Assert.Equal("1", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("1", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "Info.Key").Value;
            Assert.Equal("location1", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("location1", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "Info.Value.Zipcode").Value;
            Assert.Equal("98052", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("98052", entry.RawValue);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "Info.Value.GpsCoordinates").Value;
            Assert.Equal("10,20", entry.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Equal("10,20", entry.RawValue);
        }

        private record Person5(string Name, IFormFile Photo);

        // Regression test for #4802.
        [Fact]
        public async Task ReportsFailureToCollectionModelBinder()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(IList<Person5>),
            };

            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                SetFormFileBodyContent(request, "Hello world!", "[0].Photo");

                // CollectionModelBinder binds an empty collection when value providers are all empty.
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?a=b");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<List<Person5>>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            var person = Assert.Single(model);
            Assert.Null(person.Name);
            Assert.NotNull(person.Photo);
            using (var reader = new StreamReader(person.Photo.OpenReadStream()))
            {
                Assert.Equal("Hello world!", await reader.ReadToEndAsync());
            }

            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);
            var state = Assert.Single(modelState);
            Assert.Equal("[0].Photo", state.Key);
            Assert.Null(state.Value.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Empty(state.Value.Errors);
            Assert.Null(state.Value.RawValue);
        }

        private record TestModel(TestInnerModel[] InnerModels);

        private record TestInnerModel([ModelBinder(BinderType = typeof(NumberModelBinder))] decimal Rate);

        private class NumberModelBinder : IModelBinder
        {
            private readonly NumberStyles _supportedStyles = NumberStyles.Float | NumberStyles.AllowThousands;
            private DecimalModelBinder _innerBinder;

            public NumberModelBinder(ILoggerFactory loggerFactory)
            {
                _innerBinder = new DecimalModelBinder(_supportedStyles, loggerFactory);
            }

            public Task BindModelAsync(ModelBindingContext bindingContext)
            {
                return _innerBinder.BindModelAsync(bindingContext);
            }
        }

        // Regression test for #4939.
        [Fact]
        public async Task ReportsFailureToCollectionModelBinder_CustomBinder()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(TestModel),
            };

            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString(
                    "?parameter.InnerModels[0].Rate=1,000.00&parameter.InnerModels[1].Rate=2000");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<TestModel>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.NotNull(model.InnerModels);
            Assert.Collection(
                model.InnerModels,
                item => Assert.Equal(1000, item.Rate),
                item => Assert.Equal(2000, item.Rate));

            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);
            Assert.Collection(
                modelState,
                kvp =>
                {
                    Assert.Equal("parameter.InnerModels[0].Rate", kvp.Key);
                    Assert.Equal("1,000.00", kvp.Value.AttemptedValue);
                    Assert.Empty(kvp.Value.Errors);
                    Assert.Equal("1,000.00", kvp.Value.RawValue);
                    Assert.Equal(ModelValidationState.Valid, kvp.Value.ValidationState);
                },
                kvp =>
                {
                    Assert.Equal("parameter.InnerModels[1].Rate", kvp.Key);
                    Assert.Equal("2000", kvp.Value.AttemptedValue);
                    Assert.Empty(kvp.Value.Errors);
                    Assert.Equal("2000", kvp.Value.RawValue);
                    Assert.Equal(ModelValidationState.Valid, kvp.Value.ValidationState);
                });
        }

        private record Person6(string Name, Person6 Mother, IFormFile Photo);

        // Regression test for #6616.
        [Fact]
        public async Task ReportsFailureToNearTopLevel()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Person6),
            };

            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                SetFormFileBodyContent(request, "Hello world!", "Photo");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Person6>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Null(model.Mother);
            Assert.Null(model.Name);
            Assert.NotNull(model.Photo);
            using (var reader = new StreamReader(model.Photo.OpenReadStream()))
            {
                Assert.Equal("Hello world!", await reader.ReadToEndAsync());
            }

            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);
            var state = Assert.Single(modelState);
            Assert.Equal("Photo", state.Key);
            Assert.Null(state.Value.AttemptedValue);
            Assert.Empty(state.Value.Errors);
            Assert.Null(state.Value.RawValue);
        }

        // Regression test for #6616.
        [Fact]
        public async Task ReportsFailureToComplexTypeModelBinder()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Person6),
            };

            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                SetFormFileBodyContent(request, "Hello world!", "Photo");
                SetFormFileBodyContent(request, "Hello Mom!", "Mother.Photo");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Person6>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.NotNull(model.Mother);
            Assert.Null(model.Mother.Mother);
            Assert.NotNull(model.Mother.Photo);
            using (var reader = new StreamReader(model.Mother.Photo.OpenReadStream()))
            {
                Assert.Equal("Hello Mom!", await reader.ReadToEndAsync());
            }

            Assert.Null(model.Name);
            Assert.NotNull(model.Photo);
            using (var reader = new StreamReader(model.Photo.OpenReadStream()))
            {
                Assert.Equal("Hello world!", await reader.ReadToEndAsync());
            }

            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);
            Assert.Collection(
                modelState,
                kvp =>
                {
                    Assert.Equal("Photo", kvp.Key);
                    Assert.Null(kvp.Value.AttemptedValue);
                    Assert.Empty(kvp.Value.Errors);
                    Assert.Null(kvp.Value.RawValue);
                },
                kvp =>
                {
                    Assert.Equal("Mother.Photo", kvp.Key);
                    Assert.Null(kvp.Value.AttemptedValue);
                    Assert.Empty(kvp.Value.Errors);
                    Assert.Null(kvp.Value.RawValue);
                });
        }

        private record Person7(string Name, IList<Person7> Children, IFormFile Photo);

        // Regression test for #6616.
        [Fact]
        public async Task ReportsFailureToViaCollection()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(Person7),
            };

            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                SetFormFileBodyContent(request, "Hello world!", "Photo");
                SetFormFileBodyContent(request, "Hello Fred!", "Children[0].Photo");
                SetFormFileBodyContent(request, "Hello Ginger!", "Children[1].Photo");

                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?Children[0].Name=Fred&Children[1].Name=Ginger");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<Person7>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.NotNull(model.Children);
            Assert.Collection(
                model.Children,
                item =>
                {
                    Assert.Null(item.Children);
                    Assert.Equal("Fred", item.Name);
                    using (var reader = new StreamReader(item.Photo.OpenReadStream()))
                    {
                        Assert.Equal("Hello Fred!", reader.ReadToEnd());
                    }
                },
                item =>
                {
                    Assert.Null(item.Children);
                    Assert.Equal("Ginger", item.Name);
                    using (var reader = new StreamReader(item.Photo.OpenReadStream()))
                    {
                        Assert.Equal("Hello Ginger!", reader.ReadToEnd());
                    }
                });

            Assert.Null(model.Name);
            Assert.NotNull(model.Photo);
            using (var reader = new StreamReader(model.Photo.OpenReadStream()))
            {
                Assert.Equal("Hello world!", await reader.ReadToEndAsync());
            }

            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);
        }

        private record LoopyModel([ModelBinder(typeof(SuccessfulModelBinder))] bool IsBound, LoopyModel SelfReference);

        // Regression test for #7052
        [Fact]
        public async Task ModelBindingSystem_ThrowsOn33Binders()
        {
            // Arrange
            var expectedMessage = $"Model binding system exceeded " +
                $"{nameof(MvcOptions)}.{nameof(MvcOptions.MaxModelBindingRecursionDepth)} (32). Reduce the " +
                $"potential nesting of '{typeof(LoopyModel)}'. For example, this type may have a property with a " +
                $"model binder that always succeeds. See the " +
                $"{nameof(MvcOptions)}.{nameof(MvcOptions.MaxModelBindingRecursionDepth)} documentation for more " +
                $"information.";
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(LoopyModel),
            };

            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext();
            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = testContext.MetadataProvider.GetMetadataForType(parameter.ParameterType);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act & Assert
            var exception = await Assert.ThrowsAsync<InvalidOperationException>(
                () => parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(parameter, testContext));
            Assert.Equal(expectedMessage, exception.Message);
        }

        private record TwoDeepModel([ModelBinder(typeof(SuccessfulModelBinder))] bool IsBound);

        private record ThreeDeepModel([ModelBinder(typeof(SuccessfulModelBinder))] bool IsBound, TwoDeepModel Inner);

        // Ensure model binding system allows MaxModelBindingRecursionDepth binders on the stack.
        [Fact]
        public async Task ModelBindingSystem_BindsWith3Binders()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(ThreeDeepModel),
            };

            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(
                updateOptions: options => options.MaxModelBindingRecursionDepth = 3);

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = testContext.MetadataProvider.GetMetadataForType(parameter.ParameterType);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var result = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(parameter, testContext);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);
            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);

            Assert.True(result.IsModelSet);
            var model = Assert.IsType<ThreeDeepModel>(result.Model);
            Assert.True(model.IsBound);
            Assert.NotNull(model.Inner);
            Assert.True(model.Inner.IsBound);
        }

        private record FourDeepModel([ModelBinder(typeof(SuccessfulModelBinder))] bool IsBound, ThreeDeepModel Inner);

        // Ensure model binding system disallows one more than MaxModelBindingRecursionDepth binders on the stack.
        [Fact]
        public async Task ModelBindingSystem_ThrowsOn4Binders()
        {
            // Arrange
            var expectedMessage = $"Model binding system exceeded " +
                $"{nameof(MvcOptions)}.{nameof(MvcOptions.MaxModelBindingRecursionDepth)} (3). Reduce the " +
                $"potential nesting of '{typeof(FourDeepModel)}'. For example, this type may have a property with a " +
                $"model binder that always succeeds. See the " +
                $"{nameof(MvcOptions)}.{nameof(MvcOptions.MaxModelBindingRecursionDepth)} documentation for more " +
                $"information.";
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(FourDeepModel),
            };

            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(
                updateOptions: options => options.MaxModelBindingRecursionDepth = 3);

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = testContext.MetadataProvider.GetMetadataForType(parameter.ParameterType);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act & Assert
            var exception = await Assert.ThrowsAsync<InvalidOperationException>(
                () => parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(parameter, testContext));
            Assert.Equal(expectedMessage, exception.Message);
        }

        private record LoopyModel1([ModelBinder(typeof(SuccessfulModelBinder))] bool IsBound, LoopyModel2 Inner);

        private record LoopyModel2([ModelBinder(typeof(SuccessfulModelBinder))] bool IsBound, LoopyModel3 Inner);

        private record LoopyModel3([ModelBinder(typeof(SuccessfulModelBinder))] bool IsBound, LoopyModel1 Inner);

        [Fact]
        public async Task ModelBindingSystem_ThrowsOn33Binders_WithIndirectModelTypeLoop()
        {
            // Arrange
            var expectedMessage = $"Model binding system exceeded " +
                $"{nameof(MvcOptions)}.{nameof(MvcOptions.MaxModelBindingRecursionDepth)} (32). Reduce the " +
                $"potential nesting of '{typeof(LoopyModel1)}'. For example, this type may have a property with a " +
                $"model binder that always succeeds. See the " +
                $"{nameof(MvcOptions)}.{nameof(MvcOptions.MaxModelBindingRecursionDepth)} documentation for more " +
                $"information.";
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(LoopyModel1),
            };

            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext();
            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = testContext.MetadataProvider.GetMetadataForType(parameter.ParameterType);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act & Assert
            var exception = await Assert.ThrowsAsync<InvalidOperationException>(
                () => parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(parameter, testContext));
            Assert.Equal(expectedMessage, exception.Message);
        }

        private record RecordTypeWithSettableProperty1(string Name)
        {
            public int Age { get; set; }
        }

        [Fact]
        public async Task RecordTypeWithBoundParametersAndProperties_NoData()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(RecordTypeWithSettableProperty1)
            };

            // Need to have a key here so that the ComplexObjectModelBinder will recurse to bind elements.
            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<RecordTypeWithSettableProperty1>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Null(model.Name);
            Assert.Equal(0, model.Age);

            Assert.Empty(modelState);
            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);
        }

        [Fact]
        public async Task RecordTypeWithBoundParametersAndProperties_ValueForParameter()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(RecordTypeWithSettableProperty1)
            };

            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?name=TestName");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<RecordTypeWithSettableProperty1>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Equal("TestName", model.Name);
            Assert.Equal(0, model.Age);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState);
            Assert.Equal("Name", entry.Key);
            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);
        }

        [Fact]
        public async Task RecordTypeWithBoundParametersAndProperties_ValueForProperty()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(RecordTypeWithSettableProperty1)
            };

            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?age=28");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<RecordTypeWithSettableProperty1>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Null(model.Name);
            Assert.Equal(28, model.Age);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState);
            Assert.Equal("Age", entry.Key);
            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);
        }

        [Fact]
        public async Task RecordTypeWithBoundParametersAndProperties_ValueForParameterAndProperty()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(RecordTypeWithSettableProperty1)
            };

            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?Name=test&age=28");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<RecordTypeWithSettableProperty1>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Equal("test", model.Name);
            Assert.Equal(28, model.Age);

            Assert.Equal(2, modelState.Count);
            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState, m => m.Key == "Age");
            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, m => m.Key == "Name");
            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);
        }

        public record RecordTypeWithFilteredProperty1([BindNever] string Id, string Name);

        [Fact]
        public async Task RecordTypeWithBoundParameters_ParameterCannotBeBound()
        {
            // Annotatons on properties do not appear on properties. If an attribute is never bound, the property is also not bound.

            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(RecordTypeWithFilteredProperty1)
            };

            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?Id=not-bound&Name=test");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<RecordTypeWithFilteredProperty1>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Null(model.Id);
            Assert.Equal("test", model.Name);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState);
            Assert.Equal("Name", entry.Key);
            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);
        }

        [Bind(include: new[] { "Name" })]
        public record RecordTypeWithFilteredProperty2(string Id, string Name);

        [Fact]
        public async Task RecordTypeWithBoundParameters_ParameterAreFiltered()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(RecordTypeWithFilteredProperty2)
            };

            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?Id=not-bound&Name=test");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<RecordTypeWithFilteredProperty2>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Null(model.Id);
            Assert.Equal("test", model.Name);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState);
            Assert.Equal("Name", entry.Key);
            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);
        }

        public record RecordTypesWithDifferentMetadataOnParameterAndProperty([FromQuery] string Id, string Name)
        {
            [FromHeader]
            public string Id { get; init; } = Id;

            public string Name { get; init; } = Name;
        }

        [Fact]
        public async Task RecordTypesWithDifferentMetadataOnParameterAndProperty_MetadataOnParameterIsUsed()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(RecordTypesWithDifferentMetadataOnParameterAndProperty)
            };

            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.Headers.Add("Id", "not-bound");
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?Id=testId&Name=test");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);

            var model = Assert.IsType<RecordTypesWithDifferentMetadataOnParameterAndProperty>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Equal("testId", model.Id);
            Assert.Equal("test", model.Name);

            Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "Name");
            Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "Id");
        }

        [Fact]
        public async Task RecordTypesWithDifferentMetadataOnParameterAndProperty_NoDataForParameter()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(RecordTypesWithDifferentMetadataOnParameterAndProperty)
            };

            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.Headers.Add("Id", "not-bound");
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?Name=test");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<RecordTypesWithDifferentMetadataOnParameterAndProperty>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Null(model.Id);
            Assert.Equal("test", model.Name);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState);
            Assert.Equal("Name", entry.Key);
            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);
        }

        private record RecordTypeWithCollectionParameter(string Id, IList<string> Tags);

        [Fact]
        public async Task RecordTypeWithCollectionParameter_WithData_Succeeds()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(RecordTypeWithCollectionParameter)
            };

            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?Id=test&Tags[0]=tag1&Tags[1]=tag2");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);

            var model = Assert.IsType<RecordTypeWithCollectionParameter>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Equal("test", model.Id);
            Assert.Equal(new[] { "tag1", "tag2" }, model.Tags);

            Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "Id");
            Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "Tags[0]");
            Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "Tags[1]");
        }

        [Fact]
        public async Task RecordTypeCollectionParameter_NoData()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(RecordTypeWithCollectionParameter)
            };

            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?Id=test");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<RecordTypeWithCollectionParameter>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Equal("test", model.Id);
            Assert.Null(model.Tags);

            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "Id");
            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);
        }

        private record RecordTypesWithReadOnlyCollectionParameter(string Id, string[] Tags);

        [Fact]
        public async Task RecordTypesWithReadOnlyCollectionParameter_Data_GetsBound()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(RecordTypesWithReadOnlyCollectionParameter)
            };

            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?Id=test&Tags[0]=tag1&Tags[1]=tag2");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);

            var model = Assert.IsType<RecordTypesWithReadOnlyCollectionParameter>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Equal("test", model.Id);
            Assert.Equal(new[] { "tag1", "tag2" }, model.Tags);

            Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "Id");
            Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "Tags[0]");
            Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "Tags[1]");
        }

        private record RecordTypesWithDefaultParameterValue(string Id = "default-id", string[] Tags = null);

        [Fact]
        public async Task RecordTypesWithDefaultParameterValue_Data()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(RecordTypesWithDefaultParameterValue)
            };

            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?Id=test&Tags[0]=tag1&Tags[1]=tag2");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);
            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);

            var model = Assert.IsType<RecordTypesWithDefaultParameterValue>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Equal("test", model.Id);
            Assert.Equal(new[] { "tag1", "tag2" }, model.Tags);

            Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "Id");
            Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "Tags[0]");
            Assert.Single(modelState, e => e.Key == "Tags[1]");
        }

        [Fact]
        public async Task RecordTypesWithDefaultParameterValue_NoData()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(RecordTypesWithDefaultParameterValue)
            };

            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);

            var model = Assert.IsType<RecordTypesWithDefaultParameterValue>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Equal("default-id", model.Id);
            Assert.Null(model.Tags);

            Assert.Empty(modelState);
        }

        [Fact]
        public async Task RecordTypesWithDefaultParameterValue_PartialData()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(RecordTypesWithDefaultParameterValue)
            };

            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?Tags[0]=tag");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);

            var model = Assert.IsType<RecordTypesWithDefaultParameterValue>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Equal("default-id", model.Id);
            Assert.Equal(new[] { "tag" }, model.Tags);

            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState);
            Assert.Equal("Tags[0]", entry.Key);
        }

        [Fact]
        public async Task RecordTypesWithDefaultParameterValue_PartialDataWithPrefix()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(RecordTypesWithDefaultParameterValue)
            };

            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?parameter.Tags[0]=tag");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);

            var model = Assert.IsType<RecordTypesWithDefaultParameterValue>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Equal("default-id", model.Id);
            Assert.Equal(new[] { "tag" }, model.Tags);

            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState);
            Assert.Equal("parameter.Tags[0]", entry.Key);
        }

        private record RecordTypeWithBindRequiredParameters([BindRequired] string Name, int Age);

        [Fact]
        public async Task RecordTypeWithBindRequiredParameters_Data_Success()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(RecordTypeWithBindRequiredParameters)
            };

            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?Name=test&Age=7");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);
            Assert.True(modelState.IsValid);

            var model = Assert.IsType<RecordTypeWithBindRequiredParameters>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Equal("test", model.Name);
            Assert.Equal(7, model.Age);

            Assert.Equal(0, modelState.ErrorCount);
            Assert.Equal(2, modelState.Count);
            
            Assert.Single(modelState, m => m.Key == "Age");
            Assert.Single(modelState, m => m.Key == "Name");
        }

        [Fact]
        public async Task RecordTypeWithBindRequiredParameters_PartialData_BindRequiredError()
        {
            // Arrange
            var parameter = new ParameterDescriptor()
            {
                Name = "parameter",
                ParameterType = typeof(RecordTypeWithBindRequiredParameters)
            };

            var testContext = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetTestContext(request =>
            {
                request.QueryString = new QueryString("?Age=7");
            });

            var modelState = testContext.ModelState;
            var metadata = GetMetadata(testContext, parameter);
            var modelBinder = GetModelBinder(testContext, parameter, metadata);
            var valueProvider = await CompositeValueProvider.CreateAsync(testContext);
            var parameterBinder = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetParameterBinder(testContext);

            // Act
            var modelBindingResult = await parameterBinder.BindModelAsync(
                testContext,
                modelBinder,
                valueProvider,
                parameter,
                metadata,
                value: null);

            // Assert
            Assert.True(modelBindingResult.IsModelSet);

            var model = Assert.IsType<RecordTypeWithBindRequiredParameters>(modelBindingResult.Model);
            Assert.Null(model.Name);
            Assert.Equal(7, model.Age);

            Assert.False(modelState.IsValid);
            Assert.Equal(1, modelState.ErrorCount);
            
            Assert.Equal(2, modelState.Count);
            var entry = Assert.Single(modelState, m => m.Key == "Age");
            Assert.Empty(entry.Value.Errors);

            entry = Assert.Single(modelState, m => m.Key == "Name");
            var error = Assert.Single(entry.Value.Errors);
            Assert.Equal("A value for the 'Name' parameter or property was not provided.", error.ErrorMessage);
        }

        private static void SetJsonBodyContent(HttpRequest request, string content)
        {
            var stream = new MemoryStream(new UTF8Encoding(encoderShouldEmitUTF8Identifier: false).GetBytes(content));
            request.Body = stream;
            request.ContentType = "application/json";
        }

        private static void SetFormFileBodyContent(HttpRequest request, string content, string name)
        {
            const string fileName = "text.txt";

            FormFileCollection fileCollection;
            if (request.HasFormContentType)
            {
                // Do less work and do not overwrite previous information if called a second time.
                fileCollection = (FormFileCollection)request.Form.Files;
            }
            else
            {
                fileCollection = new FormFileCollection();
                var formCollection = new FormCollection(new Dictionary<string, StringValues>(), fileCollection);

                request.ContentType = "multipart/form-data; boundary=----WebKitFormBoundarymx2fSWqWSd0OxQqq";
                request.Form = formCollection;
            }

            var memoryStream = new MemoryStream(Encoding.UTF8.GetBytes(content));
            var file = new FormFile(memoryStream, 0, memoryStream.Length, name, fileName)
            {
                Headers = new HeaderDictionary(),

                // Do not move this up. Headers must be non-null before the ContentDisposition property is accessed.
                ContentDisposition = $"form-data; name={name}; filename={fileName}",
            };

            fileCollection.Add(file);
        }

        private ModelMetadata GetMetadata(ModelBindingTestContext context, ParameterDescriptor parameter)
        {
            return context.MetadataProvider.GetMetadataForType(parameter.ParameterType);
        }

        private IModelBinder GetModelBinder(
            ModelBindingTestContext context,
            ParameterDescriptor parameter,
            ModelMetadata metadata)
        {
            var factory = ModelBindingTestHelper.GetModelBinderFactory(
                context.MetadataProvider,
                context.HttpContext.RequestServices);
            var factoryContext = new ModelBinderFactoryContext
            {
                BindingInfo = parameter.BindingInfo,
                CacheToken = parameter,
                Metadata = metadata,
            };

            return factory.CreateBinder(factoryContext);
        }
    }
}